Fluorine in copper concentrates: mineralogical occurrence, processing behavior, and environmental implications – a review

Fluorine is increasingly recognized as a critical impurity in copper concentrates, with significant implications for hydrometallurgical processing, smelting, and environmental management. This review article consolidates and critically evaluates publications from 2014 to 2025, addressing the mineralogical occurrence of fluorine-bearing phases, thermodynamic and kinetic behavior during leaching and thermal treatment, and associated environmental impacts. Fluorite, fluoroapatite, and fluoride-bearing silicates represent the primary mineral sources, exhibiting distinct dissolution and volatilization characteristics. Contractual thresholds imposed by smelters typically range from 0.2 to 0.3% fluorine, requiring proactive mitigation strategies. Blending, selective leaching, controlled calcination, and chemical precipitation are reviewed and compared with respect to effectiveness, limitations, and environmental considerations. Future perspectives highlight the need for standardized analytical methods, advanced process modeling, and integration of fluorine management into circular economy frameworks. Collectively, this review provides a comprehensive foundation for researchers and practitioners aiming to optimize fluorine control in copper production.